Assistive Technology
for Students with Mild DisabilitiesERIC EC Digest #529
Author: Michael M. Behrmann 1995Technology
is bursting into the classroom at all levels, as a tool for teachers to develop,
monitor, and provide instructions, and for students to access and engage in
learning. P.L. 100-407, The Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with
Disabilities Act of 1988 (Tech Act) was designed to enhance the availability
and quality of assistive technology (AT) devices and services to all individuals
and their families throughout the United States. What Are Assistive Technology
(AT) Devices? The Tech Act defines AT
devices as any item, piece of equipment, or product system (whether acquired
off the shelf, modified, or customized) that is used to increase, maintain,
or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities. AT devices
may be categorized as high technology and low technology. Many low-tech devices
can be purchased at a hardware store, selected from a catalog, or fabricated
using tools and materials found in home workshops (Franklin, 1991). Examples
might be note-taking cassette recorders, pencil grips, NCR paper/copy machine,
simple switches, head pointers, picture boards, taped instructions, or workbooks.
High-tech devices frequently incorporate some type of computer chip, such as
a hand-held calculator or a "talking clock." Examples might be optical
character recognition (OCR) calculators, word processors with spelling and grammar
checking, word prediction, voice recognition, speech synthesizers, augmentative
communication devices, alternative keyboards, or instructional software. How Can AT Be Applied
in Instruction? Lahm and Morrissette (1994)
outlined seven areas of instruction where AT could assist students with mild
disabilities. These areas include organization, note taking, writing assistance,
productivity, access to reference materials, cognitive assistance, and materials
modification. A number of approaches are available to assist students with mild
disabilities in these areas of instruction. - Organization:
Low-tech solutions include teaching students to organize their thoughts or
work using flow charting, task analysis, webbing or networking ideas, and
outlining. These strategies can be accomplished using graphic organizers to
visually assist students in developing and structuring ideas. A high-tech
solution might be the outline function of word processing software, which
lets students set out major ideas or topics and then add subcategories of
information.
- Note Taking:
A simple approach is for the teacher to provide copies of structured outlines
for students to use in filling in information. A high-tech approach might
include optical character recognition, which is software that can transform
typewritten material into computer-readable text using a scanner.
A teacher's typewritten
notes can be duplicated using either NCR paper (carbonless copies) or a
copy machine. A slightly more high-tech method is to use microcassette recorders.
Or, notes can be read by a voice synthesizer, allowing students with reading
difficulty to review the notes much the same as reviewing a tape recording.
Recorders are beneficial for students with auditory receptive strength,
but they may be less useful for those needing visual input. Videotaping
class sessions may be helpful for visual learners who pick up on images
or body language, or for students who are unable to attend class for extended
periods of time. Laptop or notebook computers
can provide high-tech note taking for many students with disabilities. An
inexpensive alternative to a full-function portable computer is the portable
keyboard. The limitations of these keyboards are in formatting information
and a screen display limited to four lines of text. - Writing Assistance:
Word processing may be the most important application of assistive technology
for students with mild disabilities. Many of these students have been identified
as needing assistance in the language arts, specifically in writing. Computers
and word processing software enable students to put ideas on paper without
the barriers imposed by paper and pencil. Writing barriers for students with
mild disabilities include mechanics: spelling, grammar and punctuation errors;
process: generating ideas, organizing, drafting, editing, and revising; and
motivation: clarity and neatness of final copy, reading ability, and interest
in writing.
Grammar/spellcheckers,
dictionaries, and thesaurus programs assist in the mechanics of writing.
Macros, a feature that allows keystrokes to be recorded in a file that can
be used over and over, also assist in mechanics. Macros can be used for
spelling difficult text, for repetitive strings of words, or for formatting
paragraphs and pages. Macros also save time for students who have difficulty
with either the cognitive or motor (keyboarding) requirements of writing.
Word prediction is assistive software that functions similarly to macros.
If a student has difficulty with word recall or spelling and cannot easily
use the dictionary or thesaurus feature, then word prediction software offers
several choices of words that can be selected. Teachers can use the
editing capabilities of the word processor during the writing process, making
electronic suggestions on the student's disk. If the computer is on a network,
students can read each other's work and make comments for revision. Painter
(1994) indicated that peer feedback was an effective way to assist students
in generating and revising text. Computer editing also reduces or eliminates
problems such as multiple erasures, torn papers, poor handwriting, and the
need to constantly rewrite text that needs only minor modifications. The
final copy is neat and legible. Motivation is often
increased through the desktop-publishing and multimedia capabilities of
newer computers. A variety of fonts and styles are available, allowing students
to customize their writing and highlight important features. Graphic images,
drawings, and even video and audio can be added to the project to provide
interest or highlight ideas. Multimedia often gives the student the means
and the motivation to generate new and more complex ideas. - Productivity:
Assistive productivity tools can be hardware-based, software-based, or both.
Calculators, for example, can be the credit-card type or software based, which
can be popped up and used during word processing. Spreadsheets, databases,
and graphics software also offer productivity tools, enabling students to
work on math or other subjects that may require calculating, categorizing,
grouping, and predicting events. Productivity tools also can be found in small,
portable devices called personal digital assistants (PDAs). Newer PDAs can
be used as notetaking devices via a small keyboard or graphics-based pen input.
Some PDAs can translate words printed with the pen input device to computer-readable
text, which can then be edited with the word processor and transmitted to
a full function computer.
- Access to Reference
Materials: Many students with mild disabilities have difficulty gathering
and synthesizing information for their academic work. In this arena, telecommunications
and multimedia are providing new learning tools for the students.
A computer and a modem
can transport students beyond their physical environment to access electronic
information. This is particularly appropriate for individuals who are easily
distracted when going to new and busy environments such as the library.
Telecommunications networks offer access to the information superhighway.
Students can establish "CompuPals" with other students, which
often motivates them to generate more text and thus gain more experience
in writing. Students can also access electronic encyclopedias, library references,
and online publications. However, these experiences should be structured,
because the information highway is complex and it is easy to get distracted
or lost as opportunities are explored. Multimedia-based tools
are another way in which information can be made accessible to students.
Multimedia's use of text, speech, graphics, pictures, audio, and video in
reference-based software is especially effective in meeting the heterogeneous
learning needs of students with mild disabilities. - Cognitive Assistance:
A vast array of application program software is available for instructing
students through tutorials, drill and practice, problem-solving, and simulations.
Many of the assistive technologies described previously can be combined with
instructional programs to develop and improve cognitive and problem-solving
skills.
Multimedia CD-ROM-based
application programs offer another tool for assisted reading. Similar to
talking word processors, CD-based books include high-interest stories that
use the power of multimedia to motivate students to read. These books read
each page of the story, highlighting the words as they are read. Additional
clicks of the mouse result in pronunciation of syllables and a definition
of the word. When the student clicks on a picture, a label appears. A verbal
pronunciation of the label is offered when the student clicks the mouse
again. These books are available in both English and Spanish, so students
can read in their native language while being exposed to a second language.
- Materials Modification:
Special educators are familiar with the need to create instructional materials
or customize materials to meet the varied needs of students with disabilities.
Today there are powerful multimedia authoring and presentation tools that
educators can use to develop and modify computer-based instructional materials
for students with mild disabilities, providing a learning tool that these
students can access and use to balance their weak areas of learning with their
strong areas.
Authoring software allows
teachers and students to develop instructional software that can incorporate
video, pictures, animation, and text into hypermedia-based instruction.
Multimedia authoring software is very easy to learn and use. In fact, authoring
software packages are even available for young children. For example, if
the objective is to teach map reading, an image of a local map can be scanned
in and specific locations can be made into buttons that the students can
click on, causing a short video clip playing of the familiar location. A
set of questions might be asked using both text and synthesized speech to
have students give directions on how to get the location shown on the video.
Students could then write directions (or draw their own map). Digitized
pictures of landmarks could also be incorporated into the directions. These
directions, along with the images, could then be printed for use in completing
the assignment. Without the ability to author and incorporate multimedia
easily into instructional software, such computer-based training would be
impossible because of the need to incorporate the shared learning concepts
inherent in local environments into the assisted-learning process. Such
instruction can make learning more efficient and certainly more real for
students for whom abstract learning and generalization may be difficult.
References Franklin, K. S. (1991).
Supported employment and assistive technology: A powerful partnership. In S.
L. Griffin & W. G. Revell (Eds.), Rehabilitation counselor desktop guide
to supported employment. Richmond, VA : Virginia Commonwealth University Rehabilitation
Research and Training Center on Supported Employment. Lahm, E., & Morrissette,
S. (1994, April). Zap 'em with assistive technology. Paper presented at the
annual meeting of The Council for Exceptional Children, Denver, CO. Painter, D.D. (1994). A
study to determine the effectiveness of computer-based process writing with
learning disabled students under two conditions of instruction: Peer collaborative
process model and nonpeer collaborative process model. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA. Additional Resources Asen, S. (1994). Teaching
and learning with technology. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development. Johnson, L.J., Pugach, M.C.,
& Devlin S. (1990). Professional collaboration. TEACHING Exceptional Children,
22, 9-11. U.S. Congress, Office of
Technology Assessment. (1988). Power on! New tools for teaching and learning
(OTA-SET-379). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Electronic Resources The following Internet sites
provide additional information on assistive technology for students with disabilities:
Gopher sites: gopher sjuvm.stjohns.edu
St. John's University
Electronic Rehabilitation Resource Center gopher hawking.u.washington.edu
University of Washington From Behrmann, M. (1994).
Assistive technology for students with mild disabilities. Intervention in School
and Clinic, 30(2), 70-83. Adapted by permission. Michael M. Behrmann, Ed.D.,
is an associate professor of education at George Mason University, Fairfax,
VA.
ERIC Digests are in the
public domain and may be freely reproduced and disseminated, but please acknowledge
your source. This publication was prepared with funding from the U.S. Department
of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, under contract
no. RI93002005. The opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect
the positions or policies of OERI or the Department of Education. The
ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education (ERIC EC)
The Council for Exceptional Children
1920 Association Drive
Reston, VA 20191
Toll Free: 1.800.328.0272
TTY: 703.264.9449
E-mail: ericec@cec.sped.org
Internet: http://ericec.org |
